Sunday, December 29, 2019
The History of Samurai in Japan
Samurai were a class of highly skilled warriors that arose in Japan after the Taika reforms of A.D. 646, which included land redistribution and heavy new taxes meant to support an elaborate Chinese-style empire. The reforms forced many small farmers to sell their land and work as tenant farmers. Over time, a few large landholders amassed power and wealth, creating a feudal system similar to that of medieval Europe. To defend their riches, Japanese feudal lords hired the first samurai warriors, or bushi. Early Feudal Era Some samurai were relatives of the landowners they protected, while others were simply hired swords. The samurai code emphasized loyalty to ones masterâ€â€even over family loyalty. History shows that the most loyal samurai were usually family members or financial dependents of their lords. During the 900s, the weak emperors of the Heian Era lost control of rural Japan and the country was torn apart by revolt. The emperors power was soon restricted to the capital, and across the country, the warrior class moved in to fill the power vacuum. After years of fighting, the samurai established a military government known as the shogunate. By the early 1100s, the warriors had both military and political power over much of Japan. The weak imperial line received a fatal blow to its power in 1156 when Emperor Toba died without a clear successor. His sons, Sutoku and Go-Shirakawa, fought for control in a civil war known as the Hogen Rebellion of 1156. In the end, both would-be emperors lost and the imperial office lost all its remaining power. During the civil war, the Minamoto and Taira samurai clans rose to prominence. They fought one another during the Heiji Rebellion of 1160. After their victory, the Taira established the first samurai-led government and the defeated Minamoto were banished from the capital of Kyoto. Kamakura and Early Muromachi (Ashikaga) Periods The two clans fought once more in the Genpei War of 1180 to 1185, which ended in victory for the Minamoto. Following their victory, Minamoto no Yoritomo established the Kamakura Shogunate, retaining the emperor as a figurehead. The Minamoto clan ruled much of Japan until 1333. In 1268, an external threat appeared. Kublai Khan, the Mongol ruler of Yuan China, demanded tribute from Japan, and when Kyoto refused to comply the Mongols invaded. Fortunately for Japan, a typhoon destroyed the Mongols 600 ships, and a second invasion fleet in 1281 met the same fate. Despite such incredible help from nature, the Mongol attacks cost the Kamakura dearly. Unable to offer land or riches to the samurai leaders who rallied to Japans defense, the weakened shogun faced a challenge from Emperor Go-Daigo in 1318. After being exiled in 1331, the emperor returned and overthrew the shogunate in 1333. The Kemmu Restoration of imperial power lasted only three years. In 1336, the Ashikaga shogunate under Ashikaga Takauji reasserted samurai rule, though this new shogunate was weaker than that of the Kamakura. Regional constables called daimyo developed considerable power and meddled with the shogunates line of succession. Later Muromachi Period and Restoration of Order By 1460, the daimyos were ignoring orders from the shogun and backing different successors to the imperial throne. When the shogun, Ashikaga Yoshimasa, resigned in 1464, a dispute between backers of his younger brother and his son ignited even more intense fighting among the daimyo. In 1467, this squabbling erupted into the decade-long Onin War, in which thousands died and Kyoto was burned to the ground. The war led directly to Japans Warring States Period, or Sengoku. Between 1467 and 1573, various daimyos led their clans in a fight for national dominance, and nearly all of the provinces were engulfed in the fighting. The Warring States Period drew to a close in 1568 when the warlord Oda Nobunaga defeated three powerful daimyos, marched into Kyoto, and had his preferred leader, Yoshiaki, installed as shogun. Nobunaga spent the next 14 years subduing other rival daimyos and quelling rebellions by fractious Buddhist monks. His grand Azuchi Castle, constructed between 1576 and 1579, became of symbol of Japanese reunification. In 1582, Nobunaga was assassinated by one of his generals, Akechi Mitsuhide. Hideyoshi, another general, finished the unification and ruled as kampaku, or regent, invading Korea in 1592 and 1597. The Tokugawa Shogunate of the Edo Period Hideyoshi exiled the large Tokugawa clan from the area around Kyoto to the Kanto region in eastern Japan. By 1600, Tokugawa Ieyasu had conquered the neighboring daimyo from his castle stronghold at Edo, which would one day become Tokyo. Ieyasus son, Hidetada, became shogun of the unified country in 1605, ushering in about 250 years of relative peace and stability for Japan. The strong Tokugawa shoguns domesticated the samurai, forcing them to either serve their lords in the cities or give up their swords and farm. This transformed the warriors into a class of cultured bureaucrats. The Meiji Restoration and the End of the Samurai In 1868, the Meiji Restoration signaled the beginning of the end for the samurai. The Meiji system of constitutional monarchy included such democratic reforms as term limits for public officials and popular balloting. With public support, the Meiji Emperor did away with the samurai, reduced the power of the daimyo, and changed the capitals name from Edo to Tokyo. The new government created a conscripted army in 1873. Some of the officers were drawn from the ranks of former samurai, but more of the warriors found work as police officers. In 1877, angry ex-samurai revolted against the Meiji in the Satsuma Rebellion, but they later lost the Battle of Shiroyama, bringing the era of the samurai to an end. Culture and Weapons of the Samurai The culture of the samurai was grounded in the concept of bushido, or the way of the warrior, whose central tenets are honor and freedom from fear of death. A samurai was legally entitled to cut down any commoner who failed to honor himâ€â€or herâ€â€properly. The warrior was believed to be imbued with bushido spirit. He or she was expected to fight fearlessly and die honorably rather than surrender in defeat. Out of this disregard for death came the Japanese tradition of seppuku, in which defeated warriorsâ€â€and disgraced government officialsâ€â€would commit suicide with honor by disemboweling themselves with a short sword. Early samurai were archers, fighting on foot or horseback with extremely long bows (yumi), and used swords mainly for finishing off wounded enemies. After the Mongol invasions of 1272 and 1281, the samurai began to make greater use of swords, poles topped by curved blades called naginata, and spears. Samurai warriors wore two swords, the katana, and the wakizashi, which were banned from use by non-samurai in the late 16th century.
Saturday, December 21, 2019
The Epidemic of Homelessness in America Essay - 2375 Words
Because of the weak economy and high unemployment rates homelessness is on the rise at an alarming rate. Homelessness is worse in some areas of the United States compared to other areas because of incomes that are drastically falling, jobs that are no longer very secure which offer fewer benefits to the worker and their family members. The United States is experiencing the worst financial crisis since the Great Depression. Necessary wages made by the hour only improved by one-sixth of the rate from 2007 for employees in production work. Workers in the workforce were given a cut in hours and lowered weekly earnings. As the growth of wages goes down and the consumption growth increases it makes the economic recovery farther out†¦show more content†¦Even with the hike of minimum wage to $7.25, workers were still $3,000 under the poverty level. An average family of four would be $6,000 under the poverty line. There is a popular belief that most minimum wage workers are teenagers . The truth is that 79% of minimum wage workers are 20 or older. All over the homestead, tens of thousands of inactive and jobless young people that have college experience and or work history are having troubles finding affordable housing in the middle of this recession. This has made workers between 18 and 24 the group with the greatest unemployment rate of all adults. The young adults who are able to move back home with their parents are called the â€Å"boomerang set,†and considered the lucky ones. For some that is not an option. Their families are also being hit hard by the economy. Without an anchored home address there is a transit group that must resort to couch surfing or are forced to find private locations to sleep and live so they can stay out of the public eye. The homeless young people stay under the radar of the public because many people in the public, who are not forced to live as these transit groups do, can be very judgmental towards the young homeless adults and for most, the stigma is too much for them to handle. Pov erty gurus say the homeless young adult’s population is growing largely due to the increase in unemployment rate and that a lot more graduating high schoolShow MoreRelatedEssay about Persuasive Speech: We Must Fight Homelessness 972 Words  | 4 Pages      Specific Purpose:           To persuade my audience to help fight homelessness           Central Idea:           With more help for the homeless we can make America better for everyone      Attention      I. Imagine for a moment that youre not in this classroom. A. Instead your outside, but you not walking to class or your dorm, your living there.           B. Imagine for a moment that you yourself are homeless.                1. You have no shelter                2. When itRead MoreHomelessness : An Epidemic Across The United States1066 Words  | 5 PagesHomelessness has become an epidemic across the United States of America over the past 40 years. Despite the fact that most individuals are reminded of this problem on a daily basis when they see those without homes on the street, few solutions have been implemented that would fix the causes of this horrendous issue. Funding for programs that assist the homeless and homeless prevention programs is abysmal, while the costs incurred due to such a large homeless population continue to rise. Over theRead More Homelessness in america Essay1369 Words  | 6 Pages Homelessness in America nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Here in Tahoe, we are lucky enough to experience a great quality of life, and only a few have to face the horrible life of poverty and homelessness. However, nationwide, even right outside the basin, homelessness is a growing epidemic across the country. 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The veteran homelessness problemRead More Homelessness : The Problem Of Homelessness793 Words  | 4 PagesEverywhere you turn in the United States people are sitting on the corners of streets asking for assistance or digging in trash cans for meals. The epidemic of homelessness in the United States has reached an all-time high since the 1990’s. Unfortunately, the adage of people chose to be homeless was not accounting for families that live paycheck to paycheck and lose their job and therefore their housing because it is unavoidable. Alternatively, many individuals that are homeless have some type of
Friday, December 13, 2019
The Koran Free Essays
It is said that the Koran (or Quran) was delivered by Allah to Muhammad. Much like the Bible is to Christians; the Koran delivers to Muslims guidance on how to live a virtuous life, as well as being a historical text of events in the area, and those which occurred around the Prophet Muhammad. It is said that to understand the differences between the Muslim sects, it is relevant to delve into Islamic history. We will write a custom essay sample on The Koran or any similar topic only for you Order Now â€Å"Some basic issues within Islam today, such as the strife between Sunni and Shia Muslims began at this time and better understanding of how the disputes began is needed.†(Biedzynski, 2005). Theological scholars will often discuss the correlation of different religions within texts and history, but it is evident within the Suras of the Koran, that not only were Jews and Christians recognized, but many biblical names are also mentioned, including Jesus, Moses and Mary. In fact, the Koran recognizes many similar figures for the same reasons Christianity and Judaism does, which perhaps serves as a further example on the connection all three religions have in recounting historical events. The fundamentals of Islam are perhaps best explored through the principles governed by the Five Pillars of Islam. Essentially these are: a profession of faith, prayer, fasting, pilgrimage and charity. In order for a Muslim to be considered for heaven, and their place with Allah, it is vital for them to adhere to the Five Pillars. The first, Shahadah, or tenet of Islam, is often recited in prayer, and is an affirmation made that Mohammad is the Prophet of Allah, and there is only Allah. Arguably, this is an important pillar, and fundamentally the foundation of all Islamic practices. The second pillar, or Salat, is not only the act of praying five times a day, but is also regarded in death, and an act of purification of the spirit, as mentioned in Sura 87, â€Å"prosperous indeed is he who purifies himself recollects the name of his Lord and performs prayers†(lines 14-15). There is no division in prayer, only unity: â€Å"The words of the prayer are, essentially, those of Surat Al-Fatihah and other parts of the Quran chosen by the devotee. Thus our prayers become Allah’s words. The prayers in the form of the Friday prayer are also a weekly lesson in human equality and community solidarity†(Ayoub, 116). Zakat, or almsgiving is the Third Pillar of Islam. It is the form of charity that is practiced not only during Ramadan, but annually. The concept is to ease economic stress on the less fortunate, and is considered as an act of the virtuous who â€Å"have faith in the unseen, observe regular worship, and give alms of that which we have bestowed upon them†(2:3). The concept begins with the notion that everything belongs to Allah, and people are merely looking after it – from this earth to financial success. As is often said of charity beginning at home, the concept of zakat also starts at home, and closest friends and relations, before branching out into the community, or as stated in the Koran, â€Å"they thus give food for love of Him to the destitute, orphan, and captive†(76:8). Whilst zakat and charity is made during Ramadan, the holy month is best observed through fasting. It is the forth Pillar of Islam, and is a similar notion in remembering those less fortunate around us. It is also a significant month, historically: â€Å"Fasting, however, has a crucial significance for Muslims. It was during the month of Ramadan that Allah granted victory to Muslims over the Makkan associators in the Battle of Badr†(p125). It was also during Ramadan, that the Koran was given to Muhammad, as noted in Sura 2. During Ramadan, it is significant that Muslims remain pure, and abstain from sexual intercourse, ill tempers or bad language. They also fast from sunrise to dusk, and offer charity to their community and family. The final Pillar of Islam is the Hajj, a pilgrimage which should be made at least once in a lifetime by every Muslim. The journey involves a pilgrimage to Mecca, and the Ka’ba built there. Historically, the pilgrimage reminds Muslims of Ibrahim, and retracing of the steps he made. Rituals within the Hajj also retrace Hajar’s search for water in the barren mountains. Sura 3 speaks of how it is an ‘obligation’ for people to perform the pilgrimage, and also details how Muhammad made his first Hajj. Pilgrims who complete the annual Hajj are considered to be ‘reborn’, and able to start anew. It is considered a cleansing, but is also historically poignant: â€Å"During the Hajj important religious and political movements were born, momentous decisions and ideas were taken and exchanged, and crucial calls to jihad in the way of Allah and against oppression, tyranny and wrong were proclaimed. The Hajj is our teacher, our social and political guide, and a source of blessing in our lives†(p129). There are many things within Islam that are considered taboo, the consumption of pork and the act of suicide are two of them. Such things are called â€Å"haram†, and are labeled as forbidden acts that detract from the fundamentals of Islam. Pork is forbidden, quite simply because it is considered unclean. The Koran matter-of-factly states, â€Å"He has forbidden for you only carrion and blood and swine-flesh and that which has been immolated in the name of any other than Allah; but he who is driven thereto, neither craving nor transgressing†(16:114-115). As for suicide, Muhammad speaks of an eternity in what can be considered Hell. People, who committed suicide, would spend their days reliving the experience. â€Å"He who commits suicide by throttling shall keep on throttling himself in the Hell Fire (forever) and he who commits suicide by stabbing himself shall keep on stabbing himself in the Hell-Fire†(Sahih Bukhari 2.446). It is with this in mind, that the concept of Jihad should be explored. Jihad in itself is war (and defense) on the behalf of Islam. It is something that was often declared against those who cause ill towards a community, or as subtle as protecting a community against non-Muslims, or cleansing the soul of ill-thought and sin. In recent times, it has been extorted and abused by violence. The main aim of jihad in society is to eradicate wrongdoing and oppression (Ayoub, 191). Jihad is therefore an affirmation through action to Allah and Islam, as considered in Sura 47, â€Å"if you lend support to Allah, he shall grant you support and firmly strengthen your steps†(47:7). Jihads could involve absolving sin through study of the Koran, or sacred texts; and even through the act of the Hajj, to cleanse through action. Jihad, as it is portrayed today, is only one form, and often times not fully considered under Islamic Law. Islamic Law is what governs Muslim society, and understandably, it adheres to what appears in the Koran. Suras 4 and 5 outline measures that should be undertaken through accidental death, murder and stealing. Concepts such as compensation or blood-money, for example, are paid out to the family of one accidentally killed. Stealing, was dealt as a stark punishment, however, with a thief losing the hand they used to steal with: â€Å"And the male thief and the female thief, cut off their hand as a recompense for that which they committed, a punishment by way of example from Allah. And Allah is All-Powerful, All-Wise†(5:38). The Koran, and specifically Islam’s relationship with Christianity and Judaism, outlines the historical relevance to the connections the religion has with them. It does not dispute their existence, or indeed significant people within both religious texts, rather it is almost reliant on them: â€Å"The Qu’ran sees itself not only as depending on the Torah and Gospel for its own claim to authenticity, but also as ‘confirming’ the truth which they contain while at the same time superceding them. [..] We need to interpret our scriptures in ways that promote a meaningful dialogue which will lead to a true fellowship of faith†(98-99) Many Muslims today acknowledge resemblances in religious practices, or are often comforted to find similarities. The same can be said vice-versa, though as more people from Judaic and Muslim background learn that not only do their scriptures acknowledge each other, but have similarities in prayer: â€Å"Men and women sit separately. Services can be led by any male member of the community. In mosques, as in synagogues, Orthodox or not, there are no human symbols of God†(Hirschfield, 2006). It should also be considered, that many within Judaism and Islam need only look within their own verses to see the similarities- or as noted by a filmmaker keen to see open-dialogue, â€Å"educated by Muslims about the 99 names for God and the stories of Muhammad, Ms. Broyde-Sharone tries, in turn, to educate Jews about Islam. It is not a hateful monolith, she emphasizes. It is diverse just as Judaism is diverse†(Hirschfield, 2006). The same can be argued for the appearance of Jesus within the Koran, and the religious ‘divide’ between the Bible and the Koran. Many Suras speak of not only him, but of Mary as well. â€Å"A verse in the Quran says, â€Å"Behold! The angels said, ‘O Mary! God gives you glad tidings of a Word from Him. His name will be Jesus Christ, the son of Mary, held in honor in this world and the Hereafter and in (the company of) those nearest to God.'††(Oakland Tribune, 2003). The foundation of Islam not only lies within the text of the Koran, but also within each individual Muslim and their interpretations of the text. Whilst Muslim countries and communities seem to have differing opinions on the taboo of suicide, or the overwhelming support of a ‘jihad’, the Pillars of Islam remain intact as a guiding frame of the religion. Like Judaism and Christianity, Islam and practitioners are influenced by their own communities, history and political leaders, so it is perhaps no surprise that all three monolithic religions look to each other for validation. References Muslim musings on Jesus, Bible(s) and Dan Brown Oakland Tribune. Jun 23, 2006. FindArticles.com. 25 Sep. 2007. (http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4176/is_20060623/ai_n16507597 ) Ayoub, M. M., Islam: Faith and Practice The Open Press, Islamic Book Trust 2001. Biedzynski, J. Historical Atlas of Islam. Journal of Third World Studies. Fall 2005. Hirschfield, R. God and Allah need to talk: L.A. filmmaker spearheads Jewish-Muslim dialogue. National Catholic Reporter. Oct 6, 2006. FindArticles.com. 25 Sep. 2007. (http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1141/is_43_42/ai_n17093198 ) How to cite The Koran, Essay examples
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